The impact of nano- and microplastics on human health: what we know
Nano- and microplastics (NMPs) have been an emerging talking point since the 1970s, with concerns dramatically increasing over the past 20 years regarding their impact on human health and the environment. Whilst there is evidence available outlining their prevalence and risks, there is call for more research, policy action and public awareness.
NMPs are found in food, with studies in the UK detecting them in drinking water, salt and seafood. Of course, there’s the wider global food chain to consider too.
Assessments on the occurrence and impact of NMPs are ongoing around the world, with some food safety agencies actively monitoring the amount of NMPs entering the food chain.
What are NMPs?
NMPs are plastic particles, which are typically smaller than 5mm and composed of a mixture of polymers and additives.[1,2]
The composition and properties of NMPs can alter throughout their life cycle.[2]
Where do they come from?
Humans are exposed to NMPs via diet or by inhalation. This means that they’re present in the food supply chain and the air we breathe. But how do they get there?
The answer? via polluted soil and seawater. Food from polluted sources will contain NMPs. It’s also well documented that plastic packaging contributes to this type of pollution due to leakage across the life cycle of NMPs.[3] Use of plastic food packaging, such as plastic wrappings and single use trays, also exposes us to NMPs.
Use of plastic utensils and non-stick pans add to NMP exposure; as does reheating leftovers in plastic containers.
It’s estimated that 83% of tap water worldwide contains NMPs.[4] Recent research has shown that bottled water contains higher than previously recorded levels of NMPs.[5]
Data from a recent global report published by Earth Action highlight that around 1000 tonnes (about 166 African elephants) of plastic particles are released into food via food and beverage packaging each year.[3] The report acknowledges that food packaging is one of the most recurrent and direct routes of NMP exposure.[3]
NMPs and health
Most (>90%) of NMPs are excreted by the human body. However, small amounts may stay in the gastrointestinal tract or shift to organs via endocytosis or paracellular persorption.[6]
In 2022, the WHO published a report on NMPs and the potential implication for human health.[2] The report summarises the scientific knowledge available on the potential associated health risks and human exposure to NMPs and identifies future research needs.
The human health effects of orally ingested NMPs are limited, with no controlled dose study data available.[6] Nonetheless, some research indicates that NMPs have an impact at cellular and systematic level in the body. It has been documented that NMPs can have an inflammatory effect in the body, increase oxidative stress and cause tissue or organ damage.[7]
How this translates into ill health may vary but there is emerging evidence that NMPs impact on respiratory health and gut integrity and may increase the risk of colon and lung cancer.[8] Cardiovascular disease (CVD) related health risks are also impacted via the presence of NMPs in the arterial plaque associated with atherosclerosis. This may increase the risk of CVD-related death, myocardial infarction or stroke.[8]
The impact of NMPs on reproductive, gestational, infant and child health is also not currently well understood. Whilst there are knowledge gaps and limited data across these phases of the life span, it is acknowledged that the data available around early life exposure to NMPs are a cause for concern.[9] NMPs have been detected in semen, placentas and breastmilk.[9]
The current limited research regarding the toxic effects of NMPs on human reproductive systems doesn’t permit meaningful conclusions. More research is required which evaluates the effect of exposure dose, particle size, plastic source and co-exposure with other toxins.[10]
Should we be concerned?
That’s a difficult question to answer right now. As already noted, the current data are limited and inconclusive; however, work is underway to delve deeper with an aim to shed more light on the health impact of NMPs.
Over 120 studies on NMPs released from food contact materials have recently been reviewed by EFSA.[11] The review found that foods such as salt, meat, seafood, vegetables, grains, chewing gum and plastic teabags are significant sources of NMP contamination. However, EFSA acknowledged that methodology inconsistencies across the available literature presented limitations when drawing conclusions from the body of evidence.
Since publication of the review, EFSA has accepted a mandate from European Parliament to evaluate the health risks posed by NMPs. The assessment is due to be completed by the end of 2027 and will be a comprehensive evaluation and risk assessment of NMP sources and occurrence, exposure routes, transfer mechanisms and toxicological effects.[12]
At present, there are no official recommendations from food safety or health organisations regarding NMPs and health, but there is acknowledgement that NMPs in the environment is a growing problem. The current general consensus points towards further research on the health effects of NMPs, monitoring of NMPs in our food and environment, and reducing exposure where possible. For example, through minimising environmental contamination and improved water treatment.[13]
The bottom line
The increasing presence of NMPs in food and the environment is a public health concern. However, the exact health implications remain unclear. Whilst scientific understanding and monitoring methods are advancing, meaningful data relating to human health remains limited, highlighting the need for greater investment in research, and the future requirement for robust national policy and legislation regarding food safety and NMPs.
Emma has been a Registered Dietitian for over 18 years and has experience in adult and paediatric dietetics. She has been the Editor of NHD for 10 years, steering the editorial content and supporting the production process. Emma currently works in industry.
Emma Coates RD
References:
Heatley, A. (2025) How are microplastics regulated in the UK and European Union? How are microplastics regulated in the UK and European Union?
WHO (2022) Dietary and inhalation exposure to nano- and microplastic particles and potential implications for human health. https://iris.who.int/server/api/core/bitstreams/9cc4f66a-4c22-4a51-a910-3e7f739e3b31/content
Earth Action (2026) From Pack to Plate: A Global assessment of micro- and nanoplastics migrating from food packaging into food. EA-From-Pack-to-Plate-2026-Report_v2.pdf
Chandra, S., and Walsh, K.B. (2024) Microplastics in water: Occurrence, fate and removal. Microplastics in water: Occurrence, fate and removal - ScienceDirect
Conte, V. (2024) Plastic particles in bottled water. Plastic particles in bottled water | National Institutes of Health (NIH)
FSA Committee on Toxicity (2024) Microplastics - Inhalation route – Background. Microplastics - Inhalation route - Background | Committee on Toxicity
Rathee, V., et al. (2026) Microplastics and Health: A review on environmental exposure, toxicokinetics and biological effects. Microplastics and Health: A Review on Environmental Exposure, Toxicokinetics and Biological Effects
Savchuk, K. (2025) Microplastics and our health: What the science says. Microplastics and our health: What the science says
Food Packaging Forum (2022) Microplastic impacts on child health: knowns and unknowns. Microplastic impacts on child health: knowns and unknowns | Food Packaging Forum
Hong, Y., Shengde, W., and Wei, G. (2023) Adverse effects of microplastics and nanoplastics on the reproductive system: A comprehensive review of fertility and potential harmful interactions. Adverse effects of microplastics and nanoplastics on the reproductive system: A comprehensive review of fertility and potential harmful interactions - ScienceDirect
EFSA (2025) Literature review on micro- and nanoplastic release from food contact materials during their use. Literature review on micro‐ and nanoplastic release from food contact materials during their use - - 2025 - EFSA Supporting Publications - Wiley Online Library
EFSA (2025) Microplastics: European Parliament requests scientific advice from EFSA. Microplastics: European Parliament requests scientific advice from EFSA | EFSA
WHO (2019) Microplastics in drinking-water. Microplastics in drinking-water
Comments